Childcare, Housework Keep 7 In 10 Urban Women Out of Jobs. Can Flexible Work Change That? | India News
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An NSO report says 69 per cent of women in India’s 46 cities who remain outside labour force say childcare and household responsibilities are the main reason they are not working.
Women in big cities earn, on average, 23 per cent less than men, pointing to inequalities that extend beyond workforce participation into wages and career progression. (AI generated image)
India’s biggest cities are often seen as symbols of opportunity. They offer better education, more formal jobs and higher incomes than much of the country. Yet, for millions of urban women, the biggest barrier to employment lies not in the job market but at home.
A new survey by the National Statistics Office (NSO) has put a number to what researchers have long argued: nearly 69 per cent of women in India’s 46 cities with populations exceeding one million who remain outside the labour force say childcare and household responsibilities are the primary reason they are not working. The finding underlines that even in India’s most urbanised regions, unpaid care work continues to fall disproportionately on women.
The same survey also highlights another persistent disparity. Women in these million-plus cities earn, on average, 23 per cent less than men, pointing to inequalities that extend beyond workforce participation into wages and career progression.
Urban India Creating Jobs, But Women Aren’t Benefiting
The NSO’s broader report paints a picture of rapidly changing urban economies. Service-sector employment dominates India’s largest cities, agriculture accounts for just 1.6 per cent of employment, and regular salaried jobs constitute 58.5 per cent of total employment – far higher than the average across urban India. Casual labour accounts for only 6.3 per cent, indicating that larger cities generally offer more formal employment opportunities.
Women’s labour force participation has also improved over time. In the 46 million-plus cities, female labour force participation rose from 19.8 per cent in 2017-18 to 27.2 per cent in 2025. But the latest findings suggest that while more women are entering the workforce, a large proportion remain excluded because of unpaid caregiving responsibilities rather than the absence of jobs alone.
The data also reveals wide disparities across cities in employment and earnings. Thirty-one cities record unemployment rates above the national urban average of 4.9 per cent, while at least one in five young people are neither in employment, education nor training (NEET) in 32 cities.
The Invisible Economy Of Unpaid Care
Economists have long argued that unpaid domestic work is one of the least recognised contributors to economic inequality. Cooking, cleaning, caring for children, elderly family members and managing households are essential activities that keep families functioning, but they do not count as paid employment. Because these responsibilities continue to be performed largely by women, they often limit the time available for paid work, skill development or career advancement.
Previous national Time Use Surveys have similarly shown that Indian women spend several times more hours than men on unpaid domestic services and caregiving every day, reinforcing a gendered division of labour that begins early and often intensifies after marriage and motherhood.
The latest NSO findings indicate that this imbalance persists even in India’s largest metropolitan economies, despite greater educational attainment and wider employment opportunities.
Can Flexible Work Change The Equation?
The rapid expansion of remote and hybrid work during and after the Covid-19 pandemic raised hopes that flexibility could help more women remain in or return to paid employment.
Flexible work arrangements reduce commuting time, allow greater control over working hours and may make it easier to combine paid work with caregiving responsibilities. These benefits are especially relevant in large Indian cities, where long travel times and expensive childcare often add to the burden faced by working parents.
Recent surveys suggest there is strong demand for such arrangements. One report found that nearly eight in ten women would be willing to accept lower salaries in exchange for work-from-home opportunities, while 83 per cent said they had skipped applying for certain jobs because they believed those roles would be difficult to balance with family responsibilities.
However, researchers caution that flexibility alone is unlikely to solve the problem. Remote work is largely concentrated in sectors such as information technology, finance, consulting and other knowledge-based services, whereas many jobs in manufacturing, retail, healthcare, hospitality and public-facing services still require physical presence.
Moreover, working from home does not automatically reduce unpaid care work. Studies have found that many women continue to shoulder most household responsibilities even while working remotely, creating what is often described as a “double burden” of paid and unpaid work.
More Than Just Flexibility
The NSO data suggests that increasing women’s workforce participation will require more than economic growth alone. India’s largest cities already offer more formal employment than smaller urban centres, yet unpaid caregiving continues to keep millions of women out of the labour market.
Flexible work arrangements may help many women enter or remain in employment, particularly in sectors where remote work is feasible. But the latest evidence indicates that expanding affordable childcare, improving access to quality care services and creating workplaces that support caregivers are equally important if India’s urban labour market is to become more inclusive.
As India’s cities continue to generate better-paying and more formal jobs, the challenge is no longer only about creating employment. It is increasingly about ensuring that women are able to access those opportunities without having to choose between earning an income and caring for their families.
About the Author
Pragati Ratti
Pragati is a News Editor at news18.com. Having headed the Business and Viral sections, Pragati now ideates, writes and edits long-form features and articles on national and global affairs. She ensures…Read More
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